Burma Religion (Burma) Essay Example for Free

Burma Religion (Burma) Essay Since the Myanmar ancient times, there has been full freedom of worship for followers of Burma religions in Myanmar. So many different religions can be practiced in Myanmar. Buddhism is practiced by almost 90 percent of Myanmar religion Burmas population, with the Myanmar Theravada Buddhism School being the most prevalent. It has a firm hold in Myanmars culture along with an observance of animism, or the worship of ancestors (nat). In Myanmar culture, there are many Myanmar festivals and celebrations held that correlate with nat. Nat also has influence on the practice of Myanmar traditional medicine in Myanmar religion Burma. There are other religions in Myanmar, but they are not as widespread as Buddhism and animism. Some of the beliefs found include Christianity (Baptists) in Myanmar hill areas and Muslims. Christianity is practiced by 5.5 percent of Burmese Myanmar, Islam by 3.8 percent Hinduism by 0.5 percent and Animism by 0.2 percent before respectively in Myanmar. Myanmar is a predominantly Theravada Buddhist country. Buddhism reached Myanmar around the beginning of the Christian era, mingling with Hinduism (also imported from India) and indigenous animism in Myanmar. The Pyu and Mon kingdoms of the first millennium were Buddhist, but the early Burmese Myanmar peoples were animists. According to Myanmar religion Burma traditional history, Myanmar King Anawrahta of Bagan adopted Buddhism in 1056 and went to war with the Mon kingdom of Thaton in the south of Myanmar country in order to obtain the Buddhist Canon and learned Myanmar monks in Myanmar religion history. The religious Myanmar tradition created at this time, and which continues to the present day in Myanmar, is a syncretalist mix of what might be termed pure Buddhism (of the Sri Lankan or Theravada school) with deep-rooted elements of the original animism or nat-worship and even strands of Hinduism and the Mahayana tradition of northern India. Islam reached Myanmar at approximately the same time, but never gained a foothold outside the geographically isolated seaboard running from modern Bangladesh southwards to the delta of the Ayeyarwady (modern Rakhine, known previously to the British as Arakan, and an independent kingdom until the eighteenth century) Myanmar. The colonial period saw a huge influx of Muslim (and Hindu) Indians into Yangon and other Myanmar  cities, and the majority of Yangons many mosques and temples owe their origins to these immigrants. Christianity was brought to Myanmar by European missionaries in the 19th century. It made little if any headway among Myanmar Buddhists, but has been widely adopted by non-Buddhists such as the Karen and Kachin in Myanmar. The Chinese contribution to Myanmars religious mix has been slight, but several traditional Myanmar Chinese temples were established in Yangon and other Myanmar large cities in the nineteenth century when large-scale Chinese migration was encouraged by the British. Since approximately 1990 this migration has resumed in huge numbers, but the modern Chinese immigrants seem to have little interest in Myanmar religion Burma. Some more isolated indigenous peoples in the more inaccessible parts of Myanmar country still follow traditional animism. The Roman Catholic Church, Myanmar Baptist Convention and the Assemblies of God of Myanmar are the largest Christian denominations in Myanmar. There are no totally reliable demographic statistics form Myanmar, but the following is one estimate of the religious composition of Myanmar country: Buddhists: 87% Animists: 5% Christians: 4.5% Muslims: 4% Hindus: 1.5% Burma Arts Jamie Therese Jainar The culture of Myanmar has been heavily influenced by Buddhism. More recently, British imperialism has influenced aspects of Burmese culture, such as language and education. More recently, British imperialism has influenced aspects of Burmese culture, such as language and education. Its neighbors, particularly India, China, and Thailand, have made major contributions to Myanmar culture. In more  recent times, British colonial rule and westernisation have influenced aspects of Burmese culture, including language and education. Historically, Burmese art and literature was based on Buddhist or Hindu cosmology and myths. In addition to the traditional arts are silk weaving, pottery, tapestry making, gemstone engraving, and gold leaf making. Temple architecture is typically of brick and stucco, and pagodas are often covered with layers of gold leaf while monasteries tend to be built of wood. Although court culture has been extinguished, popular street-level culture is vibrant and thriving. Drama is the mainstay of this culture, and just about any celebration is a good excuse for a pwe (show). Performances may recount Buddhist legends, or be more light-hearted entertainments involving slapstick comedy, dance, ensemble singing or giant puppets. Myanmar music is an integral part of a pwe; it originates from Thai and emphasizes rhythm and melody. Instruments are predominantly percussive and include drums, boat-shaped harps, gongs and bamboo flutes. The toys of Myanmar are not only for the children but also famous in the world, known as the Marionettes (or) Puppets of Myanmar. It’s a combination of Myanmar Art and Culture, together to show the inner expressions of the Myanmar people. A. The Prehistoric Period c. 1100 BC to 200 BC The Pre historic Period in Burma is known from a limited number of excavations that were carried out in selected rock shelters, caves and other sites along the middle course of the Irrawaddy River. Since Burma even today is sparsely populated, it would not be surprising to find that early cultures in Burma developed in isolation. However, the artifacts uncovered in these digs resemble those in other parts of Southeast Asia indicating that there was meaningful contact over wide areas at a very early date, and the arts in Burma were not isolated even at this early time. This pattern of intra-area contact continued into the later historical periods. Since there are no written records for this early period, we know little about religious practice. However, since the artifacts that have been discovered conform to those used in small-scale societies for animist rituals, it might be presupposed that these early societies practiced a type of Animism. Therefore, Animism, and artifacts associated with its practice, will be discussed as a bridge between this most remote period and contemporary  animist art forms. B. The Pre-Pagan Period Mon and Pyu Urbanism c. 2nd BC – 8 AD During the Pre-Pagan Period there is ample evidence that the lowland peoples in Burma adopted ideas from India as indicated by a few standing structures, numerous excavated foundations, and a wide array of artifacts. These materials were produced for worship in Animism and Hinduism as well as Mahayanna and Theravada Buddhism. The first cities appear throughout central Burma and were directly dependent on extensive irrigation systems. Thus begins the parmountcy of the central region of Burma that continues until the present. The cities occur in well-planned forms that are a combination of indigenous and Indian concepts. Within these cities, the first buildings in non-perishable materials were constructed. These brick and mortar buildings were all used for religious purposes whereas secular buildings, even palaces, continued to be made of perishable materials until the modern era. This dichotomy between the type of material used for construction and the use of the building generally continued through all later developmental periods. Also, at this time, a particular interest develops for two types of religious structures – the Buddhist stupa and the Buddhist temple. Brick foundations of what were most probably the first monasteries are dated to this period. Although the number of images from the Pre-Pagan Period is limited, the diversity of styles and subject matter is generally broader than in later periods. The Mon and Pyu languages are written using alphabets and concepts adopted from India. A Burmese calendar was later created that begins with the fall of the Pyu dynasty in 836 AD. C. The Pagan Period 11th to 13th centuries Classic forms emerged during the Pagan Period for many aspects of Burmese culture, including the economic, political, religious, social, and artistic. These forms were the models used by later Burmese dynasties to create new but related forms, often through slightly modifing their content. Classic architectural forms emerged as embodied in the Shwezigon Stupa and the Ananda Temple that were repeatedly copied by later donors. The styles of sculpture from the Pagan Period were also periodically revived. Theravada Buddhism became the preferred faith and thereafter remained the predominant Burmese religion. The first examples of figurative painting occur on temple walls and employ the Pala style of India and Nepal. Although Pagan ceased  to be the political capital of Burma in the 13th century, the city continued to be a respected religious center and many later monarchs returned to Pagan to endow new foundations or refurbish old ones. D. The Post Pagan Period -14th to 20th centuries After the decline of Pagan, Burma fragmented into a number of small kingdoms that looked back to Pagan for validation and for artistic inspiration. None of these kingdoms rivaled the earlier period in art and architectural accomplishments and all can be seen as â€Å"Pagan writ small†. Pagan buildings were proudly copied, but often with significant modifications. The stupa became the most favored religious building and temples were rarely built. Wooden monasteries constructed on a raised wooden platform largely replaced the brick and stucco monasteries of Pagan. A number of Burmese styles arose, particularly in sculpture, as a result of fewer contacts with India due to the Muslim invasions there and the Muslim destruction of Buddhist religious sites. Burmese styles of painting develop and in the nineteenth century borrow pictorial devices from the West. The Mandalay Style that arose during the latter half of the Post Pagan Period became dominant in central Burma and has continued until the present as the preferred style in Burmese art.

The Learner Centered Approach

The Learner Centered Approach Since ancient times, a drive towards an ideal learning process has been the subject of study for psychologists, philosophers and educators. This investigative research has put forward various modern methodologies used in classroom. Through this quest, the pedagogical practices have moved from a teacher centered approach to the more engaging learner centered approach, whereby learners are regarded as stakeholders in their learning process. They are expected to be active participants and responsible decision makers in the teaching -learning dynamics. The learner centered approach promotes the idea that students should have greater input into what they learn and how they learn it. This is expected to make learning more valuable and relevant to the learners. More importantly, it is expected to make learners autonomous. However, there is no real learners autonomy because every decision regarding the design of the curriculum to the selection of activities chosen is hand-picked by the teach er (Lynch, 2010). Learners Autonomy The concatenation towards a learner-centered approach has resulted in the concept of learners autonomy. Learners are considered autonomous when they are self-directed and take responsibility of their own learning. The main proponent of learners autonomy, Holec (as cited in Thanasoulas, 2000) defines it as the ability to take charge of ones learning (n.p). For the learner to be proactive and self initiator of his learning, he needs to be imbibed by certain characteristics. Autonomous learners are insightful of their individual learning preferences in terms of styles and strategies. They are self activated participants in the learning process. They are risk takers and resort to the use of target language in the learning process. They incorporate intelligent guesswork in learning. They emphasize accuracy as well as appropriacy; and therefore give simultaneous attention to form and content. They analyze and negotiate rules to reject inapplicable hypotheses and proceed through the target language by placing it into a separate reference system. They are extroverts and have a forward looking and tolerant approach to target language learning. (Thanasoulas, 2000) Theoretical Underpinnings Learners autonomy and learner-centered approach take their foundational principles from the educational philosophy of constructivism. Constructivism advocates that learners must individually discover and transform complex information if they are to make it their own (Slavin, 2010). According to Candy (as cited in Thanasoulas, 2000) constructivism leads directly to the proposition that knowledge cannot be taught but only learned (n.p). The chief premise of constructivism is that learners learn by doing through personalizing and internalizing the subject matter. In this way, learning is seen as subjective and learners are seen as the chief architects of their learning (Lynch, 2010). Constructivism was shaped by the works of Piaget, Vygotsky and Dewey among others. Both Piaget and Vygotsky argue that cognitive change takes place only when previous conceptions go through a process of disequilibration in light of new information. Piaget believes in giving problems to learners that encourage them to manipulate concrete objects. In such a problem based learning, learners build upon their prior assumptions and arrive at solutions to the problems (Henson, 2003). Vygotskys social constructivism introduced the concept of cooperative learning whereby he concludes that knowledge can not be constructed in isolation and therefore, needs learners to cooperate among themselves to work towards knowledge construction (Henson, 2003). Taking the idea further, Deweys view of learner-centered education embraced the idea that education should be both problem-based and fun. Each experience should leave the learner motivated and the solving of each problem must lead to new, related questions about the topic (Henson, 2003). Dewey advocated letting learners experience their learning first hand to enable them to value their learning as subjective and relevant to them (Lynch, 2010). Dewey also stressed upon the idea of confluent or collateral learning, which emphasizes the involvement of learners emotions or affective aspect in how they learn. This marks the shift of focus from the cognitive aspect only which deals with how the mind actually functions, how it processes information or is affected by each individuals perceptions (Reid, 1987) to the affective factor that takes into consideration the emotional filter within a learner as well. The idea comes from the acknowledgement that every learner is distinct in mental and emotional makeup, interests and goals, learning pace, learning style, talent, feeling of efficacy and frames of reference. To make the learning process independent, efficient and effective for the learner, these factors must be considered worthy of attention when designing learning activities (Henson, 2003). Similarly, the learner on his part needs to be aware of his LS based on his mental and emotional system to be able to become an autonomous learner. This marks a departure from the uniformity of practice in institutions where learners are taken as a whole without regard for their diversity. Researchers now agree that it is futile to search for the single best way to achieve a broad educational outcome, in large part because learners do not fit a single mould (Guild, 2011). Learning Styles Their Classifications In Accounting for Learning Styles (2009) Dunn and Griggs define LS as, The way students begin to concentrate on, process, internalize, and remember new and difficult academic information. (p. 1). Dunn and Dunn define learning styles as A term that describes the variations among learners in using one or more senses to understand, organize, and retain experience (Tabanlioglu, 2003). Various learning styles have been proposed by various researchers. Myers -Briggs type indicator. One such classification is by Myers -Briggs (1943) who developed their Personality Type Indicator for studying how people function according to their attitude towards life. It later came to be used in education, since personality type is an indicator of how one learns (Cohen, 2006). In their polar opposite sets of four personality types, there is dichotomous pairing of introverts and extroverts. Introverts are solitude driven and introspective, while extroverts are social and externally inclined. Introverts deal with abstract concepts while extroverts are action oriented (Cohen, 2008). Sensing personality type prefer literal and chronological presentation of information. They rely on the use of five senses in how they learn (Cohen, 2008). Conversely, intuitors predominantly use the sixth sense to work through problems (Din, 2006). They are more interested in the possibilities, implications and interconnectedness of ideas and facts (Cohen, 2008). Within the pair of thinking vs feeling, the thinking learners make decisions objectively without letting an interference of emotions (Din, 2006). On the contrary, feeling learners decisions are guided by their subjective and personally held values (Cohen, 2008). Finally, there is the dichotomy between judging and perceiving. Judging learners are driven by planning and meeting deadlines (Cohen, 2008). Self-directed as they are, judging learners take a careful analysis of things before initiating a task, but take ownership of their decisions Perceptive learners are more spontaneous and adaptive, but do not value deadlines. They like to modify tasks to make them flexible for themselves (Din, 2006). Dunn Dunns LS model. In Accounting for Learning Styles (2009) Dunn Dunns model is explained, in which learners are characterized according to their strengths. Individual instructional preferences arise out of an awareness of those strengths. Developed in 1967, this model judges learners according to how they react to 21 elements arranged within five broad categories, namely; environmental, emotional, sociological, physiological and psychological. Learners have different preferences in each category, based upon which their performance can vary. Felder and Silverman LS model. In 1987, Felder created an assessment model, better known as the Felder and Silverman model, to study the learning preferences of learners. Based upon this assessment, they categorized learners into four dichotomous pairs. According to them, learners can be grouped as active/reflective, sensing/intuitive, visual/verbal, and sequential/global. Active learners activate themselves to acquire new information. Such learners prefer discussion and application of knowledge within group work. Reflectors, on the other hand, prefer to interact individually with the information. Reflective processing involves examining and manipulating the information introspectively (Felder Solomon, 2012). Sensors tend to be concrete and methodical, whereas intuitors are abstract and imaginative. Sensing and intuitive learners prefer discovery based learning, in which they like exploring possibilities and relationships. They like solving problems, but sensors like experimentation, while intuitors prefer to deal with underlying concepts. Sensors like surprises, while intuitors prefer innovation and repetition bores them. Both are practical, but intuitors are faster in grasping details (Felder Solomon, 2012). As the name suggests, visual learners learn best through visualizing content. On the contrary, verbal learners learn through words. Hence, information is processed more effectively and efficiently when presented visually for visual learners and verbally for verbal learners (Felder Solomon, 2012). Sequential learners are more methodical and linear in their approach to learning. They connect newly acquired information to previously known information and proceed in logical steps of knowledge construction. On the other hand, global learners tend to absorb content in fragments, without arranging it in their minds. They solve problems but find it hard to explain how they arrived at the conclusion (Felder Solomon, 2012). Gregorcs mind styles. Gregorc (1985) developed a mind styles inventory that categorizes learners in four patterns of learning. Concrete sequential learners learn through logical sequencing and factual arrangement of information (Putintseva, 2006). They rely on structured learning and practicality and look to find clear answers without any abstraction (Din, 2009). Abstract random learners are more harmonious with abstract, conceptual thinking and work well in groups. Their learning comes from personalizing knowledge. They prefer a sensitive and flexible environment with broad instructions and are not open to critical feedback. On the other hand, abstract sequential learners are more analytical and like to work alone. Decision making and eventual application of ideas comes much after analysis in a challenging environment. They find it hard to follow too many rules and regulations within a task (Putintseva, 2006). Their approach is theoretical and analytical (Din, 2009). The concrete ra ndom learners are independent and creative (Din, 2009). These learners take risks and use their intuitive abilities in solving problems. They are competitive and believe in a trial and error approach to solve problems without any formal restrictions and limitations (Putintseva, 2006). Kolbs experiential learning cycle LS model. The most important classification of LS comes from David Kolb (1984), who based his model on the experiential learning theory. The model thrives on the concept of learners practical experiences forming the backbone of learning. Kolb (as cited in Din, 2009) defines experiential learning as, The process of creating and transforming experience into knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, emotions, beliefs and senses. It is the process through which individuals become themselves (p.49). Kolbs work on experiential learning has its roots in the work of Dewey, Lewin and Piaget. Dewey argues that learners uniqueness as a result of their prior experiences should be acknowledged in their learning process. Dewey (as cited in Din, 2009) refers to learning from, through and to the experience (p.68). He proposes the process of concrete experience, observation and reflection, formation of abstract concepts and generalization, and testing implications of concepts in new situation (Din, 2009). Kurt Lewin, organizes elements within his model in the sequence of apprehension concrete experience, observation and reflection, abstract concepts and generalization and testing implementations of concepts (Din, 2009). Piaget propounds that learners acts of intelligence are biologically time tabled. The concept of cognitive structure is central to his theory, which explains how experiences shape intelligence. He elaborates this through four developmental stages in a learner, namely, the sensory motor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage. Sensory motor is a self-centered stage from birth to two years of age. This is followed by the cognitive intuitive stage called the preoperational stage. This lasts from three to seven years of age followed by the concrete operational stage up to twelve years of age. In this stage, logical approach is developed in learners. In the formal operational stage, learners develop higher order skills and think deeply to conserve knowledge (Din, 2009). Kolb (as cited in Din, 2009) defines learning through experiential cycle as, The process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming experience (p.50). He represents four stages in his famous experiential learning circle. This cyclical experiential learning model is learner focused and emphasizes the process of learning instead of the outcome (Din, 2009). Kolb believes concrete experience as the most likely point of initiation within this cycle of learning. Concrete experience advocates the underlying idea of learning through experiencing acquisition in a situational context. Next stage is reflective observation where the learner detaches himself from active engagement and takes an objective stock of the process and its outcome. Abstract conceptualization is a deeper, theoretical analysis of ideas. It is the intellectual processing of knowledge. Active experimentation is the eventual outcome of this cycle where the learner is expected to make use of the refined knowledge acquired and understood through the three step process and to be able to use it in novel situations. This is the stage that tests the understanding of the learner through application (Mobbs, n.d). Learning occurs when the dimensions in Kolbs experiential learning cycle are used in combination. Based upon these combinations, Kolb identifies learners as divergers, assimilators, convergers and accommodators. Divergers use a combination of concrete experience and reflective observation (Din, 2009). They are sensitive and have the ability to look at situations from different perspectives. They are imaginative, emotionally driven and receptive to feedback. Their understanding is shaped by their feelings and observations (Putintseva, 2006).They get their name from the fact that they learn well in situations that require them to generate broad range of ideas (Seca Santiago, 2003) The assimilators prefer a more logical approach in which conceptual understanding is of prime importance. They combine the use of abstract conceptualization reflective observation (Din, 2009). They do not grasp information holistically, but arrange it in logical, mental constructs. (Putintseva, 2006). They judge ideas for their theoretical value and not for their practicality (Seca Santiago, 2003). The combination of abstract conceptualization and active experimentation gives birth to converging style of learning (Din, 2009). The covergers get their name from the fact that their learning is optimized when they have to converge at one answer to a problem. Convergers learn through a problem solving approach and find solutions to problems. They engage with technicalities and are sound decision makers. Polar opposite of the divergers, learners with a converging style experiment with new ideas and to work with practical applications. On the other hand, accommodators rely on intuition and have an experiential approach to learning. They are attracted to new challenges and experiences. However, their experiential approach is more discovery based and the result of intuition rather than logical thinking. (Putintseva, 2006). Honey Mumfords LS model. Although Felder and Silverman model and Gregorcs mind styles came soon after Kolbs model and seem evidently inspired by it, no other model is as similar to Kolbs model as Honey and Mumfords LS classification. Honey and Mumford (1986) have based their LS classification on Kolbs Experiential Learning Model and admit that there are far more similarities between the two than differences. Honey and Mumford (1986) developed their inventory of four learning styles, namely Activist Reflector, Theorist and Pragmatist. Activists are experience driven and their enthusiasm pushes them to take immediate risks. Their learning comes from actively engaging in the experience. They tend to act first and consider the consequences of their actions later. Reflectors take a cautious approach and ponder analytically over ideas and experiences (Seca Santiago, 2003). They listen and observe to master the issue and do not participate till they have done so. Being assimilating learners, their learning is enhanced in situations that allow them to reflect and then make decisions (Din, 2009). Theorists are objective learners who take stock of an idea, information or experience and try to mould them into their own theoretical models. They are deep thinkers and try to relate concepts and ideas. For them sound organization of knowledge matters the most (Din, 2009). Their rational approach leads them to analyze and synthesize information (Seca Santiago, 2003) Finally, learning is fruitful to pragmatists only if they can feel its practical utility in their life outside the classroom. They are not merely concerned with the practicality of an experience, but are equally interested in its impact. This is what makes them open and receptive to constructive feedback. They fossilize newly learnt information through immediate application (Din, 2009). Their decision making is based on practicality of an idea (Seca Santiago, 2003). Apart from Honey Mumfords own admission of generating their learning styles from Kolbs model, other theorists and researchers have also studied and related the two. Seca and Santiago (2003) found significant correlation between Honey and Mumfords reflector and Kolbs reflective observation, Honey and Mumfords pragmatist and Kolbs active experimentation and Honey and Mumfords theorist and Kolbs abstract conceptualization. Based upon the fact that Kolbs learning styles emerge out of a combination of traits within his experiential cycle, a stage wise break up of Kolbs learning cycle that generate relationship between Kolbs LS and Honey and Mumfords LS is shown. Relationship between Kolbs and Honey Mumfords Learning Styles Stage in Kolbs Experiential Learning Cycle Dimensions in Kolbs Experiential Learning Cycle Kolbs Learning Styles Honey Mumfords Learning Styles Stage 1 Concrete Experience Accomodating Activist Stage 2 Reflective Observation Diverging Reflector Stage 3 Abstract Conceptualization Assimilating Theorist Stage 4 Active Experimentation Converging Pragmatist Language Learning Strategies Their Classifications On the other hand, learners use language learning strategies either consciously or unconsciously in processing new information to grasp, understand and retain concepts. Wenden and Rubin (as cited in Hismanoglu, 2000) define learning strategies as any sets of operations, steps, plans, routines used by the learner to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval, and use of information (n.p). Meyer (as cited in Clouston, 1997) defines LLS as behaviours of a learner that are intended to influence how the learner processes information (n.p). Cohen (as cited in Shabani and Sarem, n.d) defines LLS as the conscious thoughts and behaviors used by learners with explicit goal of improving their knowledge of a target language (p.3). One of the most widely accepted definition comes from Oxford (as cited in Zare, 2012) who looks at LLS as specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situatio ns (p. 164). In view of the definitions above, LLS can be understood as individual ways of processing information that aid comprehension, learning or retention of the information. Most of the work on LLS took place in the 80s and 90s. When it comes to classifying LLS, many taxonomies exist. However, a chronological review of the four most widely known classifications is discussed. O Malleys classification of LLS. O Malley (1985) divides language learning strategies into three main subcategories, namely, metacognitive strategies, cognitive strategies and socioaffective strategies. Metacognitive strategies are related to the planning of the task before initiation, self monitoring of the process and post task analysis. Cognitive strategies require the learner to be more directly and actively involved in the manipulation of the learning material. It includes note-taking, translating, contexualizing and inferencing to acquire knowledge. Socioaffective strategies involve social engagement for the sake of transaction of information to learn (Hismanoglu, 2000). Rubins classification of LLS. Rubins (1987) came up with a distinction between direct and indirect strategies, later refined by Oxford. His classification includes learning strategies, communication strategies, and social strategies, which are thought to contribute directly or indirectly to the learning process. Learning strategies branch out into cognitive learning strategies and metacognitive learning strategies. These strategies look to manipulate the material through direct analysis and/or synthesis. It can include techniques such as clarification, inductive inferencing, deductive reasoning, practice, memorization or monitoring. Communication strategies, on the other hand, aid in bridging the gap in communication that may lead to a communication break down. It can be used for clarification, asking questions and to remain a part of the conversation while learning (Zare, 2012). Oxfords classification of LLS. The most comprehensive classification of LLS to date comes from Oxford (1990), who has refined and structured her predecessors work by making a taxonomy based on six sub-classifications within two broad categories. Direct LLS are divided into memory, cognitive and compensation strategies, while indirect LLS include metacognitive, affective and social strategies. Oxford (as cited in Zare, 2012) clarifies the difference between the two as, all direct strategies require mental processing of the language while all indirect strategies provide indirect support for language learning (p. 165). Within direct strategies, memory strategies enable learners to learn and retrieve information in an orderly string as through acronyms, while other techniques create learning and retrieval through images, as in creating a mental picture, or through sounds, such as rhyming, or a combination of both, as using keywords to remember and retain the information. There can be use of other stimuli like mechanically, through flashcards or by using location, such as on a page or board or through body movements, as through total physical response. The second type of direct strategies are the cognitive strategies. Cognitive strategies enable the learner to use such methods as reasoning, analysis, note-taking, summarizing, synthesizing, reorganizing information to create knowledge structures, and practicing structures and sounds formally to manipulate the language material in direct ways. They are meant to create structures for input and output. Compensation strategies, the third type of direct strategies, employ tactics such as guessing, using synonyms and fillers or using gestures to help make up for gaps within communicative knowledge. They are more in use for averting language break down and not strictly language learning strategies. Among the indirect strategies, metacognitive strategies indirectly manipulate learning by the use of identifying ones own learning style preferences and planning accordingly. It includes gathering and organizing materials, arranging a study space and a schedule, monitoring mistakes, and evaluating task success, managing the learning process. Affective strategies, the second type of indirect strategies, are strategies to exert control over ones level of anxiety, mood, feelings, reception of material and the learning process. They are meant to control learners attitude while they engage with their learning. Finally, the third type of indirect strategies known as social strategies, are related to the inevitable need for communication with others within a task. They help the learner move forward in an informed way by asking questions for clarification or verification. Moreover, they can ask for help and while doing so, unconsciously assimilate the target cultural norms (Oxford, 2003). Sterns classification of LLS. Stern (1992) grouped LLS into five classes: management and planning strategies, cognitive strategies, communicative-experiential strategies, interpersonal strategies and affective strategies. Management and planning strategies are associated with empowering the learners to control their own learning. The learners can committ themselves to language learning; set themselves reasonable goals; select an appropriate methodology, choose relevant resources, and monitor progress. Moreover, they need to evaluate and match their level of achievement with the determined goals and expectations. Cognitive strategies refer to procedures and activities which learners use for improvement in their learning and retaining ability. They also enable learners to solve problems, especially those actions which learners use with specific classroom tasks. When using cognitive strategies, the learners can guess, clarify, verify, practice, memorize or monitor their learning. To avoid interruption within the communicative interaction, learners use techniques such as circumlocution, gesturing, paraphrasing, asking for repetition and explanation. These techniques form part of the strategies known as communicative strategies. Interpersonal strategies monitor learners development and progress. Familiarity with target culture is achieved through the use of these strategies, without which language acquisition remains incomplete. Affective strategies have an inevitable role in language learning. Feeling of unfamiliarity with a foreign language can lead to varying emotions, attitude and motivation within learners. To remain emotionally focused and motivated can be achieved through the use of affective strategies (Zare, 2012). Language Learning Strategies Used at the Graduate Level Learners at the graduate level have their own characteristics. They are willing to explore their preferred way of learning more out of a demand for autonomy that arises due to a shift in their role as they make a transition from school to college than a conscientious effort to know their LS and use of LLS. A research carried out by Gujjar, Naoreen and Aslam (2010) studied the LLS used by graduate learners in formal and non-formal education systems in Pakistan. Based on Oxfords taxonomy of LLS, the findings of their study indicated that there was no significant difference in learners from both systems in their use of direct strategies. They indicated a similar trend in their use of memory, cognitive and compensation strategies. In terms of indirect strategies, formal learners used more social strategies in language learning. However, no significant difference was found between the students from formal and non-formal systems of education on the use of meta-cognitive and affective strat egies of language learning (Gujjar et al, 2010). Relationship Between Learning Styles Language Learning Strategies: A Review of Previous Researches When left on their own and if not explicitly encouraged by the teacher to use a certain set of strategies, students typically use learning strategies that reflect their basic learning styles (Oxford, 2003). This asserts the opinion by many educationists that LLS do not operate by themselves, but are tied to the learners underlying natural tendency to learn in a particular way known as LS. It is interesting to note that many learners selection and employment of LLS is random and unconscious. To be able to optimize efficiency in learning, learners need to be familiar with their LS to know which strategies are most appropriate to their LS and to the task at hand, since a relationship is considered to exist between the learners LS and their choice of LLS. However, whereas there are significant researches in the area of studying the relationship between LS or LLS and certain variables, such as demographic factors, not much work is present in studying the relationship between learners LS and LLS. Ehrman and Oxford (1989) conducted a study regarding overall personality type as measured by Myers-Briggs Type indicator (MBTI). It was found that extroverts indicated a significantly greater use of affective strategies and visualization strategies than the introverts. However, introverts were reported to use more frequent manipulation of strategies requiring communication of meaning. Compared to sensing learners, intuitive learners used more affective, formal model building, functional practice and searching for and communicating meaning strategies. Feeling-type learners, as compared to thinkers, displayed greater use of general study strategies. Perceivers made use of more strategies for searching for and communicating meaning than the judgers, who demonstrated more frequent use of general study strategies than did perceivers (Tabanlioglu, 2003). Ehrman and Oxford (1990) studied the relationship between LS and LLS through semi-structured interviews. They used MBTI-G (Myers and McCaulley, 1985) for learning styles and the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) for preferred LLS. The results showed that the preferred LLS for each pair of LS were in an appropriately matched distribution. It could be safely concluded that LS may significantly influence their choices of LLS (Shi, 2011) Another research concerned with the relationship between LS and LLS conducted by Jie Li and Xiaoqing Qin (2006) in Chinese tertiary level learners used the Chinese version of MBTI-G and a questionnaire on the use of LLS adapted from OMalley and Chamots classification. Both quantitative and qualitative analysis of the data revealed that LS have a significant influence on learners selection of LLS. Moreover, it also investigated the influence of

Child Abuse and Neglect Essay -- Violence Against Children

Every day, about five children in the United States are murdered by a parent or caretaker. In 2014, more than 3 million reports of child abuse were made in the United States involving more than 6 million children. Child abuse kills more children in America than does accidental falls, choking on food, suffocation, or fires in the home (Newton). As if these statistics weren’t horrifying enough, they are inaccurate in relaying the actual number of children that have fallen victim to child abuse in the United States. The sad reality is child abuse is severely under-reported in the United States. Most abused and neglected children never come to the attention of government officials. Victims almost never speak of their abuse for fear of retaliation from their perpetrator (Newton). Even if the abuse has been reported, the victim will often deny the offense took place. This is especially prevalent in cases of abuse, in which the victim shows no physical injury (Thompson). The main reason children do not speak of their abuse or just flatly deny that their abuse had occurred is due to their lack of comfort within the situation. It is very uncomfortable for a child to accuse a parent or caretaker of abuse or neglect. The child can also feel an intense amount of shame and can become very withdrawn and secretive, in regards to their abuse. It is much easier for the child to take the abuse and allow their cries to go unanswered. The most common pattern of abuse is a child vic...

Religion as a Tool of Conquest in Chinua Achebes Things Fall Apart Ess

Religion as a Tool of Conquest in Things Fall Apart  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the novel Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe, the white men who come to Umuofia find success in conquering the village by challenging Ibo religion. Because the first white men to appear in Umuofia were missionaries, the slaughter of Ibo society began with the challenging of the highly-regarded religion of the Ibo people. The white men began their religious assault by openly denouncing the many gods worshipped by the Ibo in order to convert them to the new faith. After accomplishing this, the white men set out to prove that the Christian religion was superior to all others by defying the powers of the Ibo gods when they built their church upon the cursed ground of the Evil Forest. With the Ibo religion being proved powerless, the converts began challenging their former religion by killing the sacred python, revered by the people of Umuofia. By attacking the fundamental teachings of the natives’ religion, the Christians were able to effectively conquer the Ibo people. The Christians first step in taking over the people of Umuofia was to preach that the Ibo gods were false. As the white man spoke against the Ibo gods, saying that worshipping gods of â€Å"wood and stone† (Achebe, 125) was fruitless, the natives were confused. They did not understand how this could be so, and they were both amused and shocked that anyone would suggest an idea that they perceived to be so ridiculous. The Ibo questioned the white man, wondering â€Å"who will protect us from†¦ our neglected gods and ancestors† and were curious about his teachings. In doing so, it becomes apparent that the white man had succeeded in planting doubt in their minds about their religion. The Ibo were then unsure as ... ...faith had been tested several times, and had failed on all occasions. The Ibo people, at this point, had given up, and the Christians were victorious over the village and its clan. By forcing the Umuofians to question their religion, the Christians were able to successfully take over the village. They first challenged the Ibo religion by telling the villagers that their gods were not real. After this, the Christians built their church in the Evil Forest and defied the Umuofian gods who did nothing to stop the church, letting down the Ibo people. At the point of the killing of the python by a clansman, the Umuofian religion had been defeated in the eyes of its believers, and no longer held any real weight. The Christians were therefore able to effectively conquer the Ibo by attacking their religion, which had been uncontested up until that point in history.   

The Color Purple vs. The Joy Luck Club Essay -- essays research papers

The Color Purple is a biased, unbalanced view into the life of black women during the early to mid-nineteen hundreds. While it is obvious that a woman who in her own right is racist, chauvinist, and ignorant to the way that the world really works wrote the novel, it has been requested that the class write a paper on the story. Whilst this writer does not agree with this novel or anything that Alice Walker thinks or feels, obligingly this paper is been written. The Color Purple and the Joy Luck Club had many similarities, the most notably the presence of weak, ill bred, and quite frankly embarrassing male characters.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The most obvious example of one of these unfortunate male characters is of course Albert from the Color Purple. Throughout the novel, Albert is portrayed as an abusive agitator whose main concerns are money, sex, and making sure things are in their â€Å"place†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Dear God, Harpo ast his daddy why he beat me. Mr. ________ say, Cause she my wife.† (Walker, 23) Only the most ignorant of men, even if they believed this would make that reply, fueling the fire that this author feels to have Alice Walker burned at the stake. Especially considering that Alice herself admitted that she does not think fondly of the male race. Albert, throughout the book, is in no way portrayed as a good man until the very end when his whole world comes crumbling down because Celie finally stood up for herself and left with Shug. This writer feels that this is indirectly saying that men are weak and can not function in life without a â€Å"strong Woman† to guide them. I will add personally that a woman does not make a man, actions and attitude make a man. That being said, Albert is not a good man, but he realizes this and changes his ways towards the end of the story which I feel deserves him a great deal of respect.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Having slandered Alice Walker like that, this writer cannot overlook the fact that Amy Tan’s novel The Joy Luck Club does not convey a flattering view on men. While all of her male characters are minors ones at best, each one conveys a different distinct shortcoming. Harold, Lena’s husband, is completely oblivious to his wife’s feelings making him self-centered. After viewing the list of expenses on the refrigerator Lena’s mother and her had a discus... ... he had indeed been cheating on her. This fact only came out when he called her after the divorce asking for the house to start a new family. This revelation is not a proud day for men, fictional character or not.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the end, the fact that men like all of these actually exists, cannot be disputed. However, focusing on the shortcomings of someone always puts them in a negative light. This writer could easily produce a novel featuring women who do much of the same thing or perhaps I could bash a certain religion, race, or how about talking trash about homosexuals? I do not do this because it gets us nowhere and in reality, it is wrong, everyone has shortcomings. Focusing on the positive of out civilization is the way to go. I feel that the chauvinism displayed by both of these authors is a detriment to the novelists who manage to take unbiased views on the world. While both of these novels are widely shared and respected throughout the literary world, perhaps it is time to stop looking so deep into books to analyze how the theme of colonialism affected Nettie on page two-twelve and look at the facts that are in bold face. The Color Purple vs. The Joy Luck Club Essay -- essays research papers The Color Purple is a biased, unbalanced view into the life of black women during the early to mid-nineteen hundreds. While it is obvious that a woman who in her own right is racist, chauvinist, and ignorant to the way that the world really works wrote the novel, it has been requested that the class write a paper on the story. Whilst this writer does not agree with this novel or anything that Alice Walker thinks or feels, obligingly this paper is been written. The Color Purple and the Joy Luck Club had many similarities, the most notably the presence of weak, ill bred, and quite frankly embarrassing male characters.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The most obvious example of one of these unfortunate male characters is of course Albert from the Color Purple. Throughout the novel, Albert is portrayed as an abusive agitator whose main concerns are money, sex, and making sure things are in their â€Å"place†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Dear God, Harpo ast his daddy why he beat me. Mr. ________ say, Cause she my wife.† (Walker, 23) Only the most ignorant of men, even if they believed this would make that reply, fueling the fire that this author feels to have Alice Walker burned at the stake. Especially considering that Alice herself admitted that she does not think fondly of the male race. Albert, throughout the book, is in no way portrayed as a good man until the very end when his whole world comes crumbling down because Celie finally stood up for herself and left with Shug. This writer feels that this is indirectly saying that men are weak and can not function in life without a â€Å"strong Woman† to guide them. I will add personally that a woman does not make a man, actions and attitude make a man. That being said, Albert is not a good man, but he realizes this and changes his ways towards the end of the story which I feel deserves him a great deal of respect.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Having slandered Alice Walker like that, this writer cannot overlook the fact that Amy Tan’s novel The Joy Luck Club does not convey a flattering view on men. While all of her male characters are minors ones at best, each one conveys a different distinct shortcoming. Harold, Lena’s husband, is completely oblivious to his wife’s feelings making him self-centered. After viewing the list of expenses on the refrigerator Lena’s mother and her had a discus... ... he had indeed been cheating on her. This fact only came out when he called her after the divorce asking for the house to start a new family. This revelation is not a proud day for men, fictional character or not.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the end, the fact that men like all of these actually exists, cannot be disputed. However, focusing on the shortcomings of someone always puts them in a negative light. This writer could easily produce a novel featuring women who do much of the same thing or perhaps I could bash a certain religion, race, or how about talking trash about homosexuals? I do not do this because it gets us nowhere and in reality, it is wrong, everyone has shortcomings. Focusing on the positive of out civilization is the way to go. I feel that the chauvinism displayed by both of these authors is a detriment to the novelists who manage to take unbiased views on the world. While both of these novels are widely shared and respected throughout the literary world, perhaps it is time to stop looking so deep into books to analyze how the theme of colonialism affected Nettie on page two-twelve and look at the facts that are in bold face.

Night World : The Chosen Chapter 8

Well?† Daphne said. â€Å"I think it's the slave trade.† And, Rashel thought, I think I was right-this is something big. The Night World slave trade had been banned a long time ago-back in medieval days, if she remembered the stories correctly. The Council apparently had decided that kidnapping humans and selling them to Night People for food or amusement was just too dangerous. But it sounded as if Quinn might be reviving it, probably without the Council's permission. How very enterprising of him. I was right about killing him, too, Rashel thought. There's no choice now. He's as bad as I imagined- and worse. Daphne was goggling. â€Å"They were going to make me a slave?† she almost yelled. â€Å"Sh.† Rashel glanced at the man behind the doughnut counter. â€Å"I think so. Well-a slave and a sort of perpetual food supply if you were sold to vampires. Probably just dinner if you were going to werewolves.† Daphne's lips repeated werewolves silently. But Rashel was speaking again before she could ask about it. â€Å"Look, Daphne-did you get any idea about where you might be going? You said they mentioned a boat. But a boat to where? What city?† â€Å"I don't know. They never talked about any city. They just said the boat was ready†¦ and something about an aunt-clave.† She pronounced it ont-clave. â€Å"The girl said, ‘When we get to the aunt-clave†¦'† Daphne broke off as Rashel grabbed her wrist. â€Å"An enclave,† Rashel whispered. Thin chills of excitement were running through her. â€Å"They were talking about an enclave.† Daphne nodded, looking alarmed. â€Å"I guess.† This was big. This was†¦ bigger than big. It was incredible. A vampire enclave. The kidnapped girls were being taken to one of the hidden enclaves, one of the secret strongholds no vampire hunter had ever managed to penetrate. No human had even discovered the location of one. If I could get there†¦ if I could get in†¦ She could learn enough to destroy a whole town of vampires. Wipe an enclave off the face of the earth. She knew she could. â€Å"Uh, Rashel? You're hurting me.† â€Å"Sorry.† Rashel let go of Daphne's arm. â€Å"Now, listen,† she said fiercely. â€Å"I saved your life, right? I mean, they were going to do terrible things to you. So you owe me, right?† â€Å"Yeah, sure; sure, I owe you.† Daphne made pacifying motions with her hands. â€Å"Are you okay?† â€Å"Yes. I'm fine. But I need your help. I want you to tell me everything about that club. Everything I need to get in-and get chosen.† Daphne stared at her. â€Å"I'm sorry; you're crazy.† â€Å"No, no. I know what I'm doing. As long as they don't know I'm a vampire hunter, it'll be okay. I have to get to that enclave.† Daphne slowly shook her blond head. â€Å"What, you're going to, like, slay them all? By yourself? Can't we just tell the police?† â€Å"Not all by myself. I could take a couple of other vampire hunters to help me. And as for the police†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Rashel stopped and sighed. â€Å"Okay. I guess there are some things I should explain. Then maybe you'll understand better.† She raised her eyes and looked at Daphne steadily. â€Å"First, I should tell you about the Night World. Look, even before you met those vampires, didn't you ever have the feeling that there was something eerie going on, right alongside our world and all mixed up in it?† She made it as simple as she could, and tried to answer Daphne's questions patiently. And at last, Daphne sat back, looking sick and more frightened than Rashel had seen her yet. â€Å"They're all over,† Daphne said, as if she still didn't believe it. â€Å"In the police departments. In the government. And nobody's ever been able to do anything about them.† â€Å"The only people who've had any success are the ones who work secretly, in small groups or alone. We stay hidden. We're very careful. And we weed them out, one by one. That's what it means to be a vampire hunter.† She leaned forward. â€Å"Now do you see why it's so important for me to get to that enclave? It's a chance to get at a whole bunch of them all at once, to wipe out one of their hiding places. Not to mention stopping the slave trade. Don't you think it should be stopped?† Daphne opened her mouth, shut it again. â€Å"Okay,† she said finally, and sighed. â€Å"I'll help. I can tell you what to talk about, how to act. At least what worked for me.† She cocked her head. â€Å"You're going to have to dress differently†¦.† â€Å"I'll get a couple of other vampire hunters and we'll meet tomorrow after school. Let's say six-thirty. Right now, I'm taking you home. You need to sleep.† She waited to see if Daphne would object, but the other girl just nodded and sighed again. â€Å"Yeah. You know, after some of the things I've learned, home's starting to look good.† â€Å"Just one more thing,† Rashel said. â€Å"You can't tell anybody about what happened to you. Tell them anything-that you ran away, whatever-but not the truth. Okay?† â€Å"Okay.† â€Å"And especially don't tell anyone about me. Got it? My life may depend on it.† â€Å"Elliot's not here.† The voice on the telephone was cold and as hostile as Rashel had ever heard it. â€Å"Vicky, I need to talk to him. Or somebody. I'm telling you, this is our chance to get to an enclave. The girl from the warehouse heard them talking about it.† It was Friday afternoon and Rashel was phoning from a booth near her school. Vicky was speaking heavily. â€Å"We staked out that street for days and didn't see anything, but you just happened to be in the right place at the right time to help a girl escape.† â€Å"Yes. I already told you.† â€Å"Well, that was convenient, wasn't it?† Rashel gripped the handset more tightly. â€Å"What do you mean?† â€Å"Just that it would be a very dangerous thing, going to a vampire enclave. And that a person would have to really trust whoever was giving them the information about it. You'd have to be sure it wasn't a trap.† Rashel stared at the phone buttons, controlling her breathing. â€Å"I see.† â€Å"Yes, well, you don't have much credibility around here anymore. Not since letting that vampire get away. And this sounds like just the sort of thing you'd do if you were in on it with them.† Great, Rashel thought. I've managed to convince her that I really am a vampire sympathizer. Aloud she said, â€Å"Is that what Nyala is telling everybody? That I'm working with the Night World?† â€Å"I don't know what Nyala is doing.† Vicky sounded waspish and a little uneasy. â€Å"I haven't seen her since Tuesday and nobody answers at her house.† Rashel tried to make her voice calm and reasonable. â€Å"Will you at least tell Elliot what I'm doing? Then he can call me if he wants to.† â€Å"Don't hold your breath,† Vicky said, and hung up. Great. Terrific. Rashel replaced the handset wondering if she wasn't supposed to hold her breath until Elliot called, or until Vicky passed on the message. One thing was clear: she couldn't count on any help from the Lancers. Or any other vampire hunters. Nyala could be spreading any kind of rumors, and Rashel didn't dare even call another group. There was no choice. She'd have to do it alone. That night she went to Daphne's house. â€Å"Well, she's grounded,† Mrs. Childs said at the door. She was a small woman with a baby in one hand, a Pampers in the other, and a toddler clutching her leg. â€Å"But I guess you can go upstairs.† Upstairs, Daphne had to chase a younger sister out of the bedroom before Rashel could sit down. â€Å"You see, I don't even have a room of my own,† she said. â€Å"And you're grounded. But you're alive,† Rashel said, and raised her eyebrows. â€Å"Hi.† â€Å"Oh. Hi.† Daphne looked embarrassed. Then she smiled, sitting cross-legged on her bed. â€Å"You're wearing normal clothes.† Rashel glanced down at her sweater and jeans. â€Å"Yeah, the ninja outfit's just my career uniform.† Daphne grinned. â€Å"Well, you're still going to have to look different if you're going to get into the club. Should we start now, or do you want to wait for the others?† Rashel stared at a row of perfume bottles on the dresser across the room. â€Å"There aren't going to be any others.† â€Å"But I thought you said†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Look. It's hard to explain, but I've had a little problem with the vampire hunters around here. So I'm doing it without them. It's no problem. We can start now.† â€Å"Well†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Daphne pursed her lips. She looked different from the disheveled wild creature Rashel had rescued from the street last night. Her blond hair was soft and fluffy, her cornflower blue eyes were large and innocent, her face was round and sweet. She was fashionably dressed and she seemed relaxed, in her own element in this normal teenager's room. It was Rashel who felt out of place. â€Å"Well†¦ do you want to just take along a friend or something?† Daphne asked. â€Å"I don't have a friend,† Rashel said flatly. â€Å"And I don't want one. Friends are people to worry about, they're baggage. I don't like baggage.† Daphne blinked slowly. â€Å"But at school†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"I don't stay at schools more than one year at a time. I live with foster families, and I usually get myself sent to a new city every year. That way I stay ahead of the vampires. Look, this isn't about me, okay? What I want to know-â€Å" â€Å"But†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Daphne was staring at the mirror. Rashel followed her gaze to see that the reflecting surface was almost completely covered by pictures. Pictures of Daphne with guys, Daphne with other girls. Daphne counted her friends in droves, apparently. â€Å"But doesn't that get lonely?† â€Å"No, it doesn't get lonely,† Rashel said through her teeth. She found herself getting rough with the lacy little throw pillow on her lap. â€Å"I like being on my own. Now are we done with the press conference?† Looking hurt, Daphne nodded. â€Å"Okay. I talked with some people at school and everything at the dub is going on the same as usual-except that Quinn hasn't been there since Sunday. Ivan and the girl were there Tuesday and Wednesday, but not Quinn.† â€Å"Oh, really?† That was interesting. Rashel had known from the beginning that her greatest problem was going to be Quinn. The other two vampires hadn't seen her-she didn't think they even realized that Daphne had run off with a vampire hunter last night. But Quinn had spoken to her. Had been†¦ very close to her. Still, what could he have seen in that cellar, even with his vampire vision? Not her face. Not even her hair. Her ninja outfit covered her from neck to wrist to ankle. All he could possibly know was that she was tall. If she changed her voice and kept her eyes down, he shouldn't be able to recognize her. But it would be easier still if he weren't there in the first place, and Rashel could try her act on Ivan. â€Å"That reminds me,† she said. â€Å"Ivan and the girl- are their little groups into death, too?† Daphne nodded. â€Å"Everybody in the whole place is, basically. It's that kind of place.† A perfect place for vampires, in other words. Rashel wondered briefly if the Night People owned the dub or if some obliging humans had just constructed the ideal habitat for them. She'd have to check into that. â€Å"Actually,† Daphne was saying, a little shyly, â€Å"I've got a poem here for you. I thought you could say you wrote it. It would sort of prove you were into the same thing as the other girls.† Rashel took the piece of notebook paper and read: There's warmth in ice; there's cooling peace in fire, And midnight light to show us all the way. The dancing flame becomes a funeral pyre; The Dark was more enticing than the Day. She looked up at Daphne sharply. â€Å"You wrote this before you knew about the Night World?† Daphne nodded. â€Å"It's the kind of thing Quinn liked. He used to say he was the darkness and the silence and things like that.† Rashel wished she had Quinn right there in the room, along with a large stake. These young girls were like moths to his flame, and he was taking advantage of their innocence. He wasn't even pretending to be harmless; instead he was encouraging them to love their own destruction. Making them think it was their idea. â€Å"About your clothes,† Daphne was going on. â€Å"My friend Mamie is about your size and she lent me this stuff. Try it on and we'll see if it looks right.† She tossed Rashel a bundle. Rashel unfolded it, examined it doubtfully. A few minutes later she was examining herself even more doubtfully in the mirror. She was wearing a velvety black jumpsuit which clung to her like a second skin. It was cut in a very low V in front, but the sleeves reached down in Gothic points on the backs of her hands almost to the middle finger. Around her neck was a black leather choker that looked to her like a dog collar. She said, â€Å"I don't know†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"No, no, you look great. Sort of like a Betsey Johnson ultra model. Walk a little†¦ turn around†¦ okay, yeah. Now all we have to do is paint your fingernails black, add a little makeup, and-â€Å" Daphne stopped and frowned. â€Å"What's wrong?† â€Å"It's the way you walk. You walk like-well, like them, actually. Like the vampires. As if you're stalking something. And you don't ever make a noise. They're going to know you're a vampire hunter from the way you move.† It was a good point, but Rashel didn't know what to do about it. â€Å"Um†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"I've got it,† Daphne said brightly. â€Å"We'll put you in heels.† â€Å"Oh, no,† Rashel said. â€Å"There is absolutely no way I'm going to wear those things.† â€Å"But it'll be perfect, see? You won't be able to walk normally.† â€Å"No, and I won't be able to run, either.† â€Å"But you aren't going there to run. You're going to talk and dance and stuff.† Hands on her hips, she shook her head. â€Å"I don't know, Rashel, you really need somebody to go there with you, to help you with this stuff†¦.† Daphne stopped and her eyes narrowed. She stared at the mirror for a moment, then she nodded. â€Å"Yeah. That's it. There's no other choice,† she said, expelling her breath. She turned to face Rashel squarely. â€Å"I'll just have to go with you myself.† â€Å"What?† â€Å"You need somebody with you; you can't do this all alone. And there's nobody better than me. I'll go with you and this time we'll both get chosen.† Rashel sat on the bed. â€Å"I'm sorry; this time you ‘re crazy. You're the last person the vampires would ever choose. You know all about them.† â€Å"But they don't know that,† Daphne said serenely. â€Å"I told everybody at school today that I didn't remember anything that happened from Sunday on. I had to tell them something, you know. So I said that I never got to meet Quinn; that I didn't know what happened to me, but I woke up last night alone on this street in Mission Hill.† Rashel tried to think. Would any of the vampires believe this story? The answer surprised her. They just might. If Daphne had begun to come out of the mind control while she was in the truck†¦ if she had jumped out and started running, only to become fully conscious a little while later.. .. Yes. It could work. The vampires would assume that she'd have amnesia for the whole period she was in a trance, and maybe for a little before. It could work†¦. â€Å"But it's too dangerous,† she said. â€Å"Even if I let you go to the club with me, I could never let you get chosen.† â€Å"Why not? You already said I must be resistant to their mind-control thingy, right?† Daphne's blue eyes were sparking with energy and her cheeks were flushed. â€Å"So that makes me perfect for the job. I can do it. I know I can help you.† Rashel stood helplessly. Take this fluffy bunny of a girl to a vampire enclave? Let her get sold as a slave to bloodsucking monsters? Ask her to fight ruthless snakes like Quinn? â€Å"I like to work alone,† she said in a hard voice. Daphne folded her arms over her chest, refusing to be intimidated. â€Å"Well, maybe it's time you tried something different. Look, I've never met anyone like you. You're so independent, so adventurous, so–amazing. But even you can't do everything by yourself. I know I'm not a vampire hunter, but I'd like to be your friend. Maybe you should try trusting a friend this time.† Her eyes met Rashel's, and at that moment she didn't look like a fluffy bunny, but like a small, confident, and intelligent young woman. â€Å"Besides, it was me who got kidnapped,† Daphne said, shrugging. â€Å"Don't you think I should get to pay them back a little?† Rashel caught herself almost grinning. She couldn't help liking this girl, or feeling a glow of warmth at her praise. But still†¦ She drew in a careful breath and watched Daphne closely. â€Å"And you're not scared?† â€Å"Of course I'm scared. I'd be stupid not to be. But I'm not so scared I can't go.† It was the right answer. Rashel looked around the cluttered lacy room and nodded slowly. At last she said, â€Å"Okay, you're in. Tomorrow's Saturday. We'll do it tomorrow night.†

Commentaries on Catullus’ Poetry (Poems 72 & 42) Essay

There is great nuance and sensitivity in poem 72. We are told very early in the poem that it is addressed to Lesbia, Catullus’ love to whom a moderate number of poems in the collection are addressed (or concern). Earlier â€Å"Lesbia poems† had shown Catullus’ simple and insatiable love for â€Å"my girl†1 in very romantic language: for example, the lines describing the number of times he wished that they could kiss, in poem 5, which caused Aurelius and Furius to describe Catullus as a â€Å"sissy† poet2. However, in poem 70 we begin to see Catullus’ feelings for Lesbia turn sour as he tells us that a woman’s words to her lover are as trustworthy as those written on wind or water after presumably disbelieving her when she told him that there was no one she would rather marry than him, â€Å"not even if asked by Jove himself†3. If we assume that Lesbia was Clodia Metelli, we know that she was already married, so if her words are not suggesting that she has become available, she must be describing an unfulfillable wish and it is perhaps the fact that she says these words but is unable to act on her marriage vow which causes Catullus to be so untrusting4. Compared to the â€Å"outbursts of joy and fury† in the poems of what has been described as the first book, poem 72 is much â€Å"cooler and more analytical†5: Catullus here seems to be writing from his head rather than this heart. He uses, in the poem, two striking, and contrasting, similes to try to understand his love for Lesbia. He loved her (note the past tense) as a common might love his girlfriend (72.3), but in addition to that he loved her also as a father might his sons and sons-in-law (72.4). This is touching because it obviously implies that the latter relationship might be closer, with more of a connection, than the former, and, most importantly, that Lesbia was as dear to him as a son would have been, his own flesh and blood. Wray finds this comparison interesting because it is evidence against the long-standing assumption that Roman paternity was â€Å"a tyrannical and grimly loveless exercise [of parental power]†6 However, from here on in, the tone of love and affection darkens to one of cynicism. Now that he knows Lesbia he is has less affection for the woman. Catullus uses the language of obligation and Lesbia, as he sees it, has â€Å"wronged him†7. The poem ends with the enigmatic but powerful statement that, because of the hurt she has caused him, Catullus loves Lesbia more, but likes her less. At first, this may seem like nonsense and a contradiction in terms. However, when Catullus uses the verb amare (â€Å"to love†) he is describing his attraction to her, a kind of lust or natural allure, something that he seemingly has no control over. As much, then, as he does not like Lesbia for what she has put him through (i.e. her adultery), his love for her remains from the simpler time when he wished to â€Å"kiss you just so many kisses† (7.9) Poem 85 is where Catullus perhaps expresses the ambiguity and seeming contradiction inherent in his feelings best: I hate and I love. Perhaps you’re asking why I do that? I don’t know, but I feel it happening, and am racked. We can again see here clearly that Catullus â€Å"is less a master than a subject†8 of his emotions. The fact that he paints himself as being so emotionally powerless gives such poems as these a tragic quality; it also, arguably, helps to make Catullus such a universal poet who can still touch people through the ages. Poem 73 also carries some of the injustice that Catullus had expressed in 72: the attack on a friend who is probably Rufus (though we do not realise that the poem is addressed to him until it becomes evident later in the collection) is because he has returned honest kindness with no more than ingratitude. â€Å"We now realise why the lampoons on Rufus alternated with Lesbia-poems at 69-72†.9 This whole section of Catullus’ collection is a study of betrayal and adverse emotions. In the very first line of poem 72, Catullus talks about himself in the third-person, and this seems to be a literary device which emphasises the fact that he is not in control: it is Lesbia (and her actions) who is the subject of the poem. By declaring that his â€Å"passion is more intense† (72.5) Catullus leads us to think that he is about to, also, tell us how much he therefore loves Lesbia. However, by introducing the dichotomy in the last line between his love and dislike for Lesbia, our expectations are finally overthrown, which makes the contrast seem to be huge. It is by means of literary effects such as these that Catullus manages to express the almost inexpressible nuance of his emotion. This poem, ultimately, is most successful when read as part of the collection, as one can then draw links between the subtle issues in the â€Å"Lesbia poems† and see the complex web of emotions that Catullus paints for us. The development from a romantic, devoting relationship between Lesbia and Catullus to the trauma of that relationship breaking down is fascinating, and may reflect the emotions of millions of people alive today in similar situations. Poem XLII This poem is perhaps most interesting because it in itself can be seen as an imitation of the Roman practice of flagitatio10, which was a form of popular justice involving a crowd surrounding the man suspected of wrongdoing (or his house) whilst shouting ‘roughly rhythmical phrases’ in unflattering language, demanding redress11. This was a very effective tactic because in a small community fear of defamation was strong; though it did, of course, rely on having friends willing to engage in the practice in order for what was seen as justice to be done. In this case, Catullus tells us that the crime was the theft of a notebook and the subsequent refusal to return it12. We can only speculate about the girl who stole them (though it has been inferred from the fact that she is described as an ‘adulteress’13 that she may well be Lesbia) and we also have just as little knowledge about what Catullus’ stolen notebook may have contained (and why it seems to be s o precious to him): we may guess that it contained poetry, but that is no more than a guess. If that were true, the first two lines would contain a sweet irony: Catullus deploys poetry himself, hendecasyllables, as his â€Å"flagitatio mob†. He orders the hendecasyllables to come â€Å"from everywhere† (42.2), to metaphorically surround her. The image is an intimidating one: the lines of poetry have become men enclosing in on the suspect, shouting about her crime. When Catullus demands, ‘Dirty adulteress, give back the notebook. Give back the notebook, dirty adulteress’ (42.11-12), he is using a technique common to flagitatio: ‘the reversal of word order belonged to a very old popular custom as a means of intensifying the demand’14. Catullus’ readership, we can surely assume, would have been aware of such devices and would at once have understood what Catullus was doing. Between the demands for the notebook, there is much invective and abuse hurled at the girl. Catullus tells us that she has an ugly gait, a â€Å"face like a Gallican puppy’s† (42.9) and is a â€Å"filthy trollop† (42.13) and a â€Å"brazen bitch-face† (42.17). Newman describes this as â€Å"a fine example of carnival caricature† included for primarily humorous effect15. However, it is not hard to see how these lines could be intended to have a hurtful effect, too, shaming the thief into repentance. Catullus is also â€Å"all too aware of his social superiority†10 and may simply be arrogantly showing his self-importance by making such a fuss over the loss of his notebook. This idea can be seen in, for example, poem 84, in which Catullus mocks Arrius’ incorrect use of aspirates which is surely caused by the politician’s less privileged upbringing: Catullus’ attack, in this case as could be argued is the case in poem 42, is really then a display of his own aristocratic superiority. There is also a general link with poems such as 46, in which Catullus advertises his social status by documenting his travels with a sense of entitlement to faraway Roman lands. Perhaps the most pleasing feature of this poem is its conclusion. After all the fortissimo shouting, invective and carmina (chanting typical of flagitatio16), Catullus decides that he needs to change â€Å"tone and tactics† (42.22). He thus, seemingly sarcastically, ends the poem by asking for the notebook not by calling her a â€Å"dirty adulteress† but a â€Å"virtuous lady† (42.24), as we see that his invective has, somewhat comically, failed in its objective. On the other hand, the last line could more literally be interpreted as an acknowledgement of the flaws of this kind of public system of obtaining restitution. It does not seem unlikely that the girl would have responded more positively to flattery than flagitatio: Catullus could thus be making a wider point about the role of invective in society. The poem, in the collection, sits between invective poems on either side of it, with the previous three poems containing invective, some quite rude and obscene: in poem 43, for example, Mamurra’s mistress is described as being ugly from head to toe and, in poem 41, Ameana is called â€Å"the female fuck-up†. Perhaps, then, poem 42 is in the perfect location to show Catullus’ invective being tempered: it is in that poem that he shows that such anger does not always produce the desired effects. In poems 41 and 43, however, we are not shown any consequences of Catullus airing his opinions. We are simply told, in each, that there is an ugly girl in whom he is not interested: there is not intended to be the nuance and comedy value that poem 42 contains. To conclude, Catullus’ adopting the form of flagitatio for this poem ‘underscores the poet’s association with the traditional purposes and values inherent in Roman invective’17; not only does he derive authority from the tradition of the technique, but it also allows him to attack her harshly and eloquently. However, ultimately, he couldn’t force a blush from, in Catullus’ words, the â€Å"brazen bitch-face†. We, therefore, see the limitations of invective: perhaps Catullus is admitting to us that we should see it as little more than entertainment. More importantly, though, the twist at the end of the poem is of stylistic and comedic value and can, perhaps, be said to show Catullus’ eloquence. Moreover, the fact that he feels no qualms at using such openly offensive language can be attributed to the fact that Romans would surely have sympathised with his demands for justice in face of a thief and may, also, be a reflection of his superior social status (not to mention the lower regard with which women were held generally) and consequent security in his right to show his anger in whatever way that he pleased. Ultimately, the poem makes character assassination into an appealing and technically adept art. Bibliography Dyson, J.T. (2007). â€Å"The Lesbia Poems†, in M.B. Skinner (ed.), A Companion to Catullus (Oxford) 254-275. Fitzgerald, W. (1999). Catullan Provocations: Lyric Poetry and the Drama of Position. London. Fraenkel, E. (1961). â€Å"Catullus XLII†, in J.H. Gaisser (ed.), Oxford Readings in Classical Studies: Catullus (Oxford) 356-368. Newman, J.K. (1990). Roman Catullus. Bodenheim. Selden, D.L. (1992). â€Å"Catullus and the Rhetoric of Performance†, in J.H. Gaisser (ed.), Oxford Readings in Classical Studies: Catullus (Oxford) 490-559. Tatum, W.J. (2007). â€Å"Social Commentary and Political Invective†, in M.B. Skinner, A Companion to Catullus (Oxford) 333-354. Wiseman, T.P. (1985). Catullus and his World: A Reappraisal. Cambridge. Wray, D. (2001). Catullus and the Poetics of Roman Manhood. Cambridge. 1 Catullus 2.1. 2 cf. Catullus 16. 3 Catullus 70.2. 4 Dyson (2007) 269. 5 Wiseman (1985) 166. 6 Wray (2001) 112. 7 Fitzgerald (1999) 117. 8 Selden (1992) 541. 9 Wiseman (1985) 167. 10 Fitzgerald (1999) 62. 11 Fraenkel (1961) 364. 12 Catullus 42.4 (â€Å"refuses to give me our notebook back†). 13 Catullus 42.12 14 Fraenkel (1961) 363. 15 Newman (1990) 192. 16 Fraenkel (1961) 364. 17 Tatum (2007) 337.